Pedestrians
Introduction
Walking is a basic human activity, and almost everyone is a pedestrian at one time or another. The 2001 edition of the AASHTO Green Book states that “pedestrians are a part of every roadway environment, and attention should be paid to their presence in rural as well as urban areas“ (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 2001). It goes on to state, “. . . pedestrians are the lifeblood of our urban areas, especially in the downtown and other retail areas” (p. 96).
Even though pedestrians are legitimate roadway users, they are frequently overlooked in the quest to build more-sophisticated transportation systems. Whether building new infrastructure or renovating existing facilities, it should be assumed that people will walk, and plans should be made to accommodate pedestrians (Exhibit II-1). Where people aren’t walking, it is often because they are prevented or discouraged from doing so. Either the infrastructure is insufficient, has serious gaps, or there are safety hazards. Aesthetics (e.g., pleasant walking environments that include trees, landscaping, displays of public art, etc.) and destinations within walking distances also play important roles in determining levels of walking.
| EXHIBIT II-1 Whether building new infrastructure or renovating existing facilities, it should be assumed that people will walk, and plans should be made to accommodate pedestrians. (Photo by Dan Burden)
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Safety concerns can significantly influence a person’s decision to walk or use other modes of transportation. However, understanding pedestrian safety issues has proven difficult for engineers and planners. Traditionally, safety problems have been identified by analyzing police crash reports, and improvements have been made only after crashes have occurred. Such methods are not sufficient to fully understand and effectively address pedestrian safety concerns. Waiting for crashes to warrant actions carries a high price, as pedestrian crashes tend to be severe. While analysis of crash reports is an important and valuable activity, it does not provide a complete picture of perceived safe or unsafe pedestrian environments and may not offer the best guidance on effective, proactive, measures to promote a safe pedestrian environment.
Recent experience and research has shown that a comprehensive approach is most effective in creating safer walking environments. Many pedestrian safety problems cannot be solved simply by addressing one of the “three Es” (engineering, education, enforcement) in isolation. Engineers, law enforcement, designers, planners, educators, and citizens should all play a role in identifying and implementing effective countermeasures for improving pedestrian safety.
There is also a need to take proactive measures to address pedestrian safety issues. For example, planners can host interactive public workshops, survey pedestrians and drivers, and talk with police and traffic engineers to identify safety problems in an area before crashes occur. Pedestrian safety, both actual and perceived, and the provision of appropriate pedestrian infrastructure will influence how many people will walk and the number and type of pedestrian crashes that will occur.
Finally, in making any decisions about program or countermeasure implementation, consideration should be given to the special characteristics and needs of the population being targeted. This is especially true with respect to education or enforcement interventions, but even road signs and pavement markings can be affected. People of different cultures and ethnic backgrounds, non-English speaking populations, those with physical impairments, and even children and the elderly may necessitate modifications to the countermeasure to ensure that it reaches its intended target audience and has the desired safety benefits.
In recent years, walking has received increased attention as a mode of transportation that should be encouraged for a variety of reasons. On April 22, 1994, the U.S. Department of Transportation presented its National Bicycling and Walking Study to the U.S. Congress, which, in addition to documenting the state of bicycling and walking in the United States, contained two overall goals:
- Double the percentage of total trips made by bicycling and walking in the United States from 7.9 percent to 15.8 percent of all travel trips1
- Simultaneously reduce by 10 percent the number of bicyclists and pedestrians killed or injured in traffic crashes
Congress adopted the Study’s goals, effectively creating a directive to Federal transportation agencies to implement the Study’s Nine-Point Federal Action Plan with 60 specific action items for the Office of the Secretary, Federal Highway Administration, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, and Federal Transit Administration; and a Five-Point State and Local Action Plan with a range of suggested activities for state and local agencies. In addition, Congress, prior to adoption of NBWS, had vastly increased the amount of Federal funding available for pedestrian projects with the adoption of the ISTEA of 1991, and, in 1998, the TEA-21. Spending of federal transportation funds on these two modes rose from $6 million in 1990 to more than $238 million in 1997. Clearly, any agency charged with construction, operation, and maintenance of highway infrastructure must devote attention to accommodating safe pedestrian activity.
What progress has been made towards achieving NBWS’s goal of reducing injuries to pedestrians and bicyclists by 10 percent? In 1993, the last year prior to the release of the study, 5,649 pedestrians were killed in collisions with motor vehicles. In 2000, the last year for which data are available, the number of pedestrian fatalities had fallen to 4,739. These numbers reflect a 16.6 percent decline in fatalities, which far exceeds the safety goals set by NBWS.
Unfortunately, this drop in pedestrian fatalities may reflect decreased walking activity as much as it does improved safety. According to both the U.S. Census and the Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey, the percentage of trips made by walking has declined over the past decade. The U.S. Census indicates a decrease in the percent of walk-to-work trips from 3.9 to 2.7 (1980 and 1990 U.S. Census), while NPTS indicates a decrease in percent of all trips by walking from 7.2 to 5.4 (Hu and Young, 1992, 1993; U.S. Department of Transportation, 1995). Clearly NBWS’s goal of increasing the percentage of trips made by walking has not been achieved. When available, data from the 2000 Census and NPTS surveys will help clarify any downward trends in walking activity. In the meantime, it is important to recognize that increased emphasis, as well as increased funding, is being devoted to promoting walking, making it especially critical that pedestrian safety issues remain a high priority for State and local transportation officials.
ADA Design Guidelines
One of the goals of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) is to ensure that all people, including those with disabilities, have equal access to transportation. People with disabilities may have physical limitations, impaired vision, impaired cognitive ability, or a combination of disabilities, which is more common as a person grows older. Over 90 percent of the population will experience a disability on a permanent or temporary basis at some point in their lives.
This document is intended to be a guide for addressing traffic safety issues associated with pedestrians. It is not intended to be a design guide or to deal with accessibility. However, as those who are doing design and working to create access for pedestrians of all types perform their tasks, they should understand potential highway-safety issues involved.
Further details are contained within this guide relative to providing facilities for people with disabilities. Specifically, such discussion is provided within the strategy of sidewalks and walkways. Details on accessible pedestrian signals are given within the discussion of traffic and pedestrian signals.
More information can be found on ADA regulations from the following web sites:
www.access-board.gov
http://www.walkinginfo.org/de/index.htm
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/bikeped/publications.htm
Other Guidelines
In addition to this pedestrian guide, many state and local agencies develop their own design or planning guidelines that address pedestrian safety. Some of these exemplary guides can be found at http://www.walkinginfo.org/rd/for_ped.htm#guide.